WEBVTT 00:00.000 --> 00:05.000 Frontline is a presentation of the Documentary Consortium. 00:11.000 --> 00:16.000 While America continues to celebrate the stunning victory of Operation Desert Storm, 00:16.000 --> 00:20.000 the people of Iraq continue to suffer. 00:20.000 --> 00:26.000 Even when war is easy, the peace can be very hard. 00:26.000 --> 00:33.000 Tonight on Frontline, a year before Operation Desert Storm, 00:33.000 --> 00:38.000 the Pentagon tested its doctrine of overwhelming force in the invasion of Panama. 00:38.000 --> 00:43.000 The footage you're looking at covers what remains of the Comandancia. 00:43.000 --> 00:46.000 But today, after more than a year of democracy, 00:46.000 --> 00:50.000 Panama is still plagued by the same problems that led to the invasion. 00:50.000 --> 00:57.000 The information that I have is that there is more drug trafficking and more money laundering now than under Norway. 00:57.000 --> 01:02.000 Tonight, War and Peace in Panama. 01:07.000 --> 01:13.000 With funding provided by the financial support of viewers like you 01:13.000 --> 01:19.000 and by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 01:19.000 --> 01:23.000 this is Frontline. 01:36.000 --> 01:40.000 Panama City, October 3rd, 1989. 01:40.000 --> 01:46.000 At 8 a.m., rebel members of the Panamanian Defense Forces took control of the Comandancia, 01:46.000 --> 01:53.000 the headquarters of General Manuel Antonio Noriega. 01:53.000 --> 01:58.000 Overhead, U.S. helicopters watched the unfolding action, 01:58.000 --> 02:06.000 while U.S. commanders blocked some roads to prevent Noriega loyalists from coming to his rescue. 02:06.000 --> 02:10.000 By 9 a.m., the rebels controlled the Comandancia, 02:10.000 --> 02:17.000 and a camera caught General Noriega being escorted from his office. 02:21.000 --> 02:27.000 For nearly two years, Noriega had been an acute embarrassment to the U.S. government. 02:27.000 --> 02:33.000 The Justice Department had indicted him on drug smuggling and money laundering charges in 1988. 02:33.000 --> 02:43.000 But every effort by two U.S. presidents, from economic sanctions to negotiations, had failed to convince Noriega to step down. 02:49.000 --> 02:53.000 When the dictator nullified the free election of a new Panamanian government 02:53.000 --> 03:00.000 and his dignity battalions brutally beat the opposition candidates, 03:00.000 --> 03:06.000 President Bush openly encouraged the Panamanian Defense Forces to overthrow Noriega. 03:06.000 --> 03:10.000 We'd love to see him get him out. We'd like to see him out of there. 03:16.000 --> 03:22.000 But now, with a coup in progress, the administration was surprisingly unprepared. 03:22.000 --> 03:26.000 We halfway supported the coup attempt. We brought in helicopters overhead, 03:26.000 --> 03:31.000 but we didn't really go that extra mile to see that it actually happened. 03:31.000 --> 03:35.000 Doug Waller is a Pentagon correspondent for Newsweek magazine. 03:35.000 --> 03:40.000 Advisors around the president were very cautious about the coup plotters, 03:40.000 --> 03:46.000 didn't know whether they were for real, didn't know if they were going to be, 03:46.000 --> 03:51.000 if this was just a trap for the Americans to fall into. 03:51.000 --> 03:55.000 So they held back. 03:55.000 --> 04:01.000 By one o'clock, more Panamanian Defense Forces arrived to take control of the Comandancia. 04:01.000 --> 04:05.000 Noriega had talked the rebel leaders into putting down their arms, 04:05.000 --> 04:10.000 and five hours after it began, the coup had failed. 04:10.000 --> 04:20.000 Noriega resumed command of his forces, and that night he ordered the execution of several of the rebels. 04:20.000 --> 04:25.000 Little, if anything, was done to seize the moment. 04:25.000 --> 04:33.000 Instead, uncertainty prevailed. No actions were taken to assist the people of Panama in the coup attempt to fail. 04:33.000 --> 04:37.000 The intelligence has not been adequate. The strategy has not been adequate. 04:37.000 --> 04:41.000 The contingency plans have not been in place. 04:41.000 --> 04:46.000 Newsweek's cover story on the failed coup seemed to say it all. 04:46.000 --> 04:53.000 There was a real feeling in the Congress, I think, and throughout certainly Washington and maybe the rest of the country, 04:53.000 --> 04:58.000 that here we had the first crisis and the administration had really blundered. 04:58.000 --> 05:05.000 There was one moment on that morning of the coup attempt when Bush believed that Noriega was in custody. 05:05.000 --> 05:11.000 They were discussing how they would move him, what they would do, what role was the United States going to play, 05:11.000 --> 05:19.000 when a middle-level aide wandered into the Oval Office to say, no, it's all over. The coup has completely failed. 05:19.000 --> 05:27.000 The next day, Secretary of State James Baker was called before a Senate committee to defend the administration's actions. 05:27.000 --> 05:36.000 The United States retains the option to use American forces. That option has never been ruled out. 05:36.000 --> 05:43.000 But if you're going to risk American lives, Mr. Chairman, it's the President's view that you do so on your own timetable, 05:43.000 --> 05:57.000 you do so based on your own plans, at a time of maximum opportunity and advantage, and you don't do so on the basis of someone else's plans. 05:57.000 --> 06:02.000 General Colin Powell had just been installed as the new chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 06:02.000 --> 06:11.000 and he ordered a reexamination of the military's contingency plans for Panama. 06:11.000 --> 06:18.000 Those plans call for a very gradual buildup of U.S. forces. 06:18.000 --> 06:23.000 Retired Marine General Bernard Treanor is now a military analyst. 06:23.000 --> 06:28.000 The plan which later became known as Just Cause, which was used in the invasion of Panama, 06:28.000 --> 06:34.000 was built on the premise that we would move in by surprise with overwhelming force very rapidly 06:34.000 --> 06:40.000 and put end to any problems in Panama in quick order. 06:40.000 --> 06:51.000 In Panama, the U.S. military built up its forces, and it also began to intensely rehearse the new invasion plan, 06:51.000 --> 07:02.000 a plan that would require it to hit dozens of targets simultaneously, if and when the President gave the order. 07:02.000 --> 07:09.000 On December 15th, the Panamanian National Assembly proclaimed Noriega its maximum leader 07:09.000 --> 07:14.000 and declared that Panama was in a state of war with the U.S. 07:14.000 --> 07:23.000 The next night, near the Comandancia, four unarmed off-duty U.S. soldiers were stopped at a Panamanian roadblock. 07:23.000 --> 07:29.000 In the confrontation that followed, a Marine lieutenant was shot and killed. 07:29.000 --> 07:35.000 At the very same time that that was happening, there was an American Navy lieutenant and his wife 07:35.000 --> 07:39.000 who had just been stopped ahead of these four officers. 07:39.000 --> 07:44.000 General Mark Cisneros commanded all U.S. Army troops in Panama. 07:44.000 --> 07:49.000 They took this American couple out, threw them up against the wall, sexually abused her, 07:49.000 --> 07:56.000 fondled her and threatened her in many subtle ways of sexual abuse, threatened to kill him. 07:56.000 --> 07:59.000 They kicked him in the groin a couple of times. 07:59.000 --> 08:06.000 They blindfolded him, took him to one place and then to another place, and it was just a pure act of terrorism. 08:06.000 --> 08:13.000 The next day at the White House, President Bush held a climactic meeting with his advisors. 08:13.000 --> 08:20.000 One thing about the president is that he personalizes a lot of crises, and when they describe to him 08:20.000 --> 08:26.000 the soldiers and the wife being tortured and beaten and I believe even raped or at least sexually abused, 08:26.000 --> 08:29.000 it truly bothered the president. 08:29.000 --> 08:34.000 George Bush wanted to get Noriega. This was not just a mission to liberate Panama, 08:34.000 --> 08:38.000 but certainly one designed to get Noriega. 08:38.000 --> 08:42.000 We threw everything but the kitchen sink into the Panama invasion. 08:42.000 --> 08:45.000 And that's part of Powell's thinking on this. 08:45.000 --> 08:48.000 And he's told the president this time and again, 08:48.000 --> 08:53.000 if you're going to go in, go in whole hog, go in and do it right. 08:53.000 --> 08:57.000 Don't go in halfway. And they didn't. 08:57.000 --> 09:03.000 I was driving down the street and this was probably the 18th of December. 09:03.000 --> 09:09.000 I was driving down the street, going towards a shopping mall to do some Christmas shopping for my family. 09:09.000 --> 09:16.000 Lou Oliveira was an Army Ranger stationed at Fort Lewis in Tacoma, Washington. 09:16.000 --> 09:21.000 And as I drove down, my pager went off, so I immediately called in and I reported, 09:21.000 --> 09:27.000 and immediately the atmosphere was something other than what I'd ever experienced before. 09:27.000 --> 09:33.000 It was very tense, very stressful. 09:33.000 --> 09:44.000 We were told that it was real, that we were jumping into Panama, and we were going to war. 09:44.000 --> 09:52.000 Frontline has obtained exclusive footage of the invasion taken by seven Air Force combat cameramen. 09:52.000 --> 09:59.000 Oliveira was part of a force of 5,000 soldiers being assembled at five staging areas around the country. 09:59.000 --> 10:12.000 They would join thousands more already stationed in Panama. 10:12.000 --> 10:18.000 In Panama City, it had been another day of business as usual. 10:18.000 --> 10:24.000 Shops were closing up, and Panamanians were on their way home from work. 10:24.000 --> 10:35.000 Elizabeth Ramos, a 23-year-old engineering student, was looking forward to the holiday. 10:35.000 --> 10:41.000 She told me, Mother, tomorrow when you go to the supermarket, bring some grapes and apples for Christmas. 10:41.000 --> 10:45.000 I said OK, but I did not know that was the last thing she would say to me. 10:45.000 --> 10:51.000 I did not think that I would never see her again. 10:51.000 --> 10:56.000 At six o'clock that night, Noriega had just left a political rally. 10:56.000 --> 11:03.000 Secret U.S. documents, based on debriefings of Noriega's bodyguard several days later, 11:03.000 --> 11:09.000 revealed that Noriega was drinking heavily and disregarded warnings of a military action. 11:09.000 --> 11:16.000 He believed that he was protected by the magical powers of witches. 11:16.000 --> 11:23.000 Noriega's secret motorcade consisted of a four-door Hyundai, a Mercedes, and a Toyota Land Cruiser. 11:23.000 --> 11:27.000 The Mercedes was a decoy to fool potential assassins. 11:27.000 --> 11:29.000 Noriega rode in the Hyundai. 11:29.000 --> 11:38.000 Despite the warnings of U.S. military movements, the bodyguard said Noriega was drunk and asleep in the car. 11:38.000 --> 11:44.000 He came here to a military recreational center where a woman was brought to his room. 11:44.000 --> 11:50.000 He told his bodyguards that he wanted to keep a low profile. 11:50.000 --> 11:58.000 Around six p.m., my daughter Elizabeth called me, and she said to me, 11:58.000 --> 12:04.000 Mother, I'm here at the university finishing up some work. 12:04.000 --> 12:09.000 And she also said that she was going to go to the hospital to go see her sister Martha 12:09.000 --> 12:14.000 and to stay there until she gave birth. 12:14.000 --> 12:18.000 She called again at midnight and said, I'm here in the maternity ward. 12:18.000 --> 12:23.000 Martha had a little girl, and now I'm going home. 12:23.000 --> 12:26.000 Elizabeth Ramos then walked out to a bus stop. 12:26.000 --> 12:34.000 It was now 15 minutes before the invasion was to begin. 12:34.000 --> 12:41.000 Sergeant Lou Olivera and his men had been in a plane for the last seven hours. 12:41.000 --> 12:48.000 And as I looked out, I saw the Tracers, the Tracer ground fire coming up from the ground, 12:48.000 --> 12:52.000 hitting the aircraft in front of us, hitting our aircraft. 12:52.000 --> 12:59.000 And I just popped my head back in and I said, they know we're coming, and get ready to jump. 12:59.000 --> 13:06.000 And then I took my place in the door, and when the green light lit, I jumped. 13:06.000 --> 13:26.000 US forces attacked targets all over Panama. 13:26.000 --> 13:30.000 But the main point of the assault was the Comandancia. 13:30.000 --> 13:34.000 It was hit from both the air and from the ground. 13:34.000 --> 13:36.000 Okay, we got some fires running out there. 13:36.000 --> 13:38.000 There's that number five right there. 13:38.000 --> 13:42.000 It's burning good. 13:42.000 --> 13:46.000 Straight rounds, straight rounds. 13:46.000 --> 13:49.000 Everything was going as planned. 13:49.000 --> 13:56.000 When we hit 4th of July Avenue, they had up a roadblock, and we got bogged down. 13:56.000 --> 14:10.000 And that's when most of the bullets started flying. 14:10.000 --> 14:12.000 And in front of my Tracers, like, two explosions. 14:12.000 --> 14:14.000 Wham, wham. 14:14.000 --> 14:15.000 And I'm like, oh, no. 14:15.000 --> 14:29.000 So I thought it was like RPG fire coming from the Comandancia. 14:29.000 --> 14:45.000 That's a small demonstration. 14:45.000 --> 14:46.000 We ask you to surrender. 14:46.000 --> 14:55.000 If you do not, we are prepared to level each and every building. 14:55.000 --> 14:58.000 They were on top of us attacking everything that moved. 14:58.000 --> 15:02.000 We could shoot at everything that moved, and the people were frightened. 15:02.000 --> 15:04.000 We had never experienced anything like it. 15:04.000 --> 15:15.000 People were looking for refuge. 15:15.000 --> 15:19.000 I never feel so nervous in my life. 15:19.000 --> 15:25.000 I put my soul and my spirit in the hand of the good Lord because I really believe it was the head. 15:25.000 --> 15:28.000 I've seen pictures with Rambo and things like that. 15:28.000 --> 15:36.000 But I never expect that I was going to live it. 15:36.000 --> 15:37.000 There was an explosion. 15:37.000 --> 15:39.000 The light went out. 15:39.000 --> 15:42.000 All the windows shattered, and the ceiling fan fell down. 15:42.000 --> 15:45.000 My wife thought the wall was going to fall on us. 15:45.000 --> 15:49.000 My oldest daughter said, Mom, let us pray. 15:49.000 --> 15:51.000 But my wife couldn't even say our father. 15:51.000 --> 15:53.000 She couldn't even speak. 15:53.000 --> 15:57.000 My daughter had to help her. 15:57.000 --> 16:03.000 When the bombs began to explode, Noriega emerged from his room and asked what was happening. 16:03.000 --> 16:11.000 His bodyguard told him that paratroopers were coming out of the sky and to get into the car. 16:11.000 --> 16:13.000 But they had nowhere to go. 16:13.000 --> 16:20.000 Despite their long-held fears of a possible kidnapping by the United States, they had nowhere to hide. 16:20.000 --> 16:25.000 Noriega asked his bodyguard, what are we going to do? 16:25.000 --> 16:32.000 That night, special U.S. operations units had been assigned to capture Noriega, but were unsuccessful. 16:32.000 --> 16:34.000 We knew Noriega had been in Cologne. 16:34.000 --> 16:38.000 We knew he had came back, but we just didn't know exactly where he was. 16:38.000 --> 16:42.000 You have to conclude at any rate that there was something wrong that within Panama, 16:42.000 --> 16:46.000 a place that we have been occupying since the turn of the century, 16:46.000 --> 16:50.000 against a fellow that we have been watching for a long, long time, 16:50.000 --> 16:54.000 that we couldn't put together an operation that would grab him. 16:54.000 --> 16:59.000 Motherfucker. 16:59.000 --> 17:02.000 Attention, attention. 17:02.000 --> 17:05.000 It would be in vain to resist. 17:05.000 --> 17:11.000 You have ten minutes to get rid of the weapons. 17:11.000 --> 17:17.000 I remember thinking that because we're shooting like a red tracer, and they have green tracers on the AKs. 17:17.000 --> 17:22.000 So we're sitting there moving back and forth and someone in my mind, I was thinking, 17:22.000 --> 17:25.000 jeez, this looks like Star Wars. 17:25.000 --> 17:31.000 In the midst of all this concentration of heat of battle, thinking, jeez, this looks like Star Wars. 17:41.000 --> 17:48.000 The attack included the Air Force's secret stealth fighter bomber on its first flight into combat. 17:48.000 --> 17:52.000 Its mission was to attack a barracks near the Rio-Ato airport 17:52.000 --> 17:56.000 and stun one of Noriega's elite units stationed there. 17:56.000 --> 17:59.000 Every service got a piece of the pie. 17:59.000 --> 18:04.000 That's why you had the Air Force with the F-117 stealth bomber coming in there for a bombing mission. 18:04.000 --> 18:09.000 Now the Air Force to this day insists that it was needed. 18:09.000 --> 18:15.000 There are a lot of people in the Army who kind of chuckle to themselves on whether that was really the case. 18:15.000 --> 18:24.000 Lou Olivera and his Rangers had jumped into Rio-Ato just after the stealth dropped its bombs. 18:24.000 --> 18:27.000 But the defense forces had not been disabled. 18:27.000 --> 18:30.000 The stealth had missed its target. 18:30.000 --> 18:37.000 There were two Panamanians that ambushed me. 18:37.000 --> 18:44.000 And they were about 10 feet away when they opened up with AK-47s on full automatic. 18:44.000 --> 18:50.000 And it felt like someone, like Mike Tyson, had punched me in the chest as hard as he could. 18:50.000 --> 18:56.000 And had physically, I remember hearing the audible sound of my breath coming out of my mouth. 18:56.000 --> 19:00.000 And my feet just came out from underneath me. 19:00.000 --> 19:04.000 They were coming through the jungle, coming through the bushes. 19:04.000 --> 19:08.000 And as they walked up, I could hear them speak Spanish. 19:08.000 --> 19:14.000 And they finally got to me and were talking above me, over the top of me. 19:14.000 --> 19:18.000 And one of them kicked me in the side to see if I was still alive. 19:18.000 --> 19:24.000 And I moaned or moved or some indication that I was still alive. 19:24.000 --> 19:29.000 So he leveled his rifle point blank to my head and pulled the trigger. 19:29.000 --> 19:32.000 And that's the last I remember. 19:32.000 --> 19:41.000 In Panama City, Noriega wanted desperately to go back to the recreational center to retrieve a lucky charm which he believed held special powers. 19:41.000 --> 19:45.000 But his bodyguard persuaded him it was impossible to return. 19:45.000 --> 19:49.000 Eventually, they decided to go to the home of a Panamanian lieutenant. 19:49.000 --> 19:53.000 There, Noriega called his mistress and several of his officers. 19:53.000 --> 19:59.000 His calls to his headquarters, the Comandancia, went unanswered. 19:59.000 --> 20:06.000 The footage you're looking at covers what remains of the Comandancia. 20:06.000 --> 20:10.000 It is burning to the ground. 20:10.000 --> 20:15.000 There's still sporadic fire coming out. 20:15.000 --> 20:20.000 It's getting around the Comandancia. 20:20.000 --> 20:25.000 Obviously, there are some diehards. 20:25.000 --> 20:31.000 The building's burning. You know, a few times we had to move position because of falling buildings. 20:31.000 --> 20:43.000 It was on fire. And people jumping out of windows and a lot of things. 20:43.000 --> 20:52.000 When we left the building, I saw dead people. 20:52.000 --> 20:58.000 The neighborhood was up in flames. I saw a car on fire with people inside. 20:58.000 --> 21:06.000 There was water running in the street and burnt bodies. Burnt. There were many dead people burnt. 21:06.000 --> 21:20.000 If the devil is in hell, I don't even think the devil would like to live the night of the 20th of December, 1989. 21:20.000 --> 21:25.000 U.S. forces were finding it difficult to determine who was really the enemy, 21:25.000 --> 21:31.000 because some Panamanian soldiers had changed into civilian clothes and continued to fight. 21:31.000 --> 21:35.000 This truck was stopped with a volley of bullets. 21:35.000 --> 21:45.000 Were they Noriega's soldiers or innocent civilians? It would take months to sort it out. 21:45.000 --> 21:50.000 The bulk of the fighting was over in a matter of hours. 21:50.000 --> 22:01.000 In Chorrios, the neighborhood surrounding the Comandancia, civilians were rounded up. 22:01.000 --> 22:06.000 Most of the Panamanian defense forces had surrendered or run away. 22:06.000 --> 22:11.000 Elizabeth Ramos had disappeared, and Noriega was still nowhere to be found. 22:11.000 --> 22:19.000 I took this action only after reaching the conclusion that every other avenue was closed 22:19.000 --> 22:25.000 and the lives of American citizens were in grave danger. 22:25.000 --> 22:32.000 General Noriega is in hiding, and nevertheless, yesterday a dictator ruled Panama, 22:32.000 --> 22:38.000 and today constitutionally elected leaders govern. 22:38.000 --> 22:45.000 President Guillermo Endara and his two vice presidents had been sworn in on a U.S. military base, 22:45.000 --> 22:52.000 but installing the elected government did not prevent most Latin American countries from condemning the U.S. invasion. 22:52.000 --> 22:57.000 The legality is very dubious for a number of reasons. 22:57.000 --> 23:09.000 Unlike the operation in the Gulf, Desert Storm, the invasion of Panama was not sanctioned by the United Nations, 23:09.000 --> 23:14.000 nor was it sanctioned by the Organization of American States. 23:14.000 --> 23:19.000 There was no international backing for it whatsoever, and in fact, after the invasion, 23:19.000 --> 23:38.000 it was condemned in the United Nations by a substantial vote and an overwhelming vote, 20 to 1 in the OAS. 23:38.000 --> 23:44.000 As daylight broke over Panama, U.S. soldiers began to relax. 23:44.000 --> 23:49.000 You're studs. You're both studs. I hope you know that. 23:49.000 --> 23:53.000 Yeah, that's us. 23:53.000 --> 23:58.000 Prisoners continued to be rounded up. 23:58.000 --> 24:02.000 What I want to try to do is find someone who's like a key communicator. 24:02.000 --> 24:13.000 Also, here's something else we want to pitch. Who's the new president? Who was the president that these guys threw out? 24:13.000 --> 24:16.000 The guy who was elected is now back in power. 24:16.000 --> 24:17.000 The president, Ford? 24:17.000 --> 24:21.000 No, not Ford. 24:21.000 --> 24:28.000 Indara. Indara has been established as Presidente, and he's asked the PDF to surrender. 24:28.000 --> 24:31.000 Okay, okay. Communicate. 24:31.000 --> 24:35.000 Indara. 24:35.000 --> 24:45.000 When troops entered Noriega's Comandancia, the barracks had been demolished. 24:45.000 --> 24:49.000 U.S. soldiers were astonished at what they were finding. 24:49.000 --> 24:54.000 Mementos of Hitler. 24:54.000 --> 25:00.000 Five million dollars in cash. 25:00.000 --> 25:07.000 And inside a voodoo doll full of pins, a picture of the president of Panama. 25:07.000 --> 25:17.000 So here we are like in Noriega's, you know, like we're in his office and, you know, going through and you see all the arm room and stuff and they had like a lot better equipment than we did, you know. 25:17.000 --> 25:24.000 And, you know, you're going through the office and you get kind of like a personal, like a view of like, well, what was this guy like? 25:24.000 --> 25:37.000 And that's when you start, that's when all the porno tapes and all the alcohol and all the, like they had like kiddie magazines and stuff that, you know, just porn and just some sick stuff. 25:37.000 --> 25:42.000 And then you go in there like frogs everywhere, like little statues of frogs. 25:42.000 --> 25:44.000 He loved frogs or something. 25:44.000 --> 25:49.000 And then he loved camouflage, just about everything he had that was camouflaged in some way. 25:49.000 --> 26:02.000 His, the chairs around his conference table were camouflaged and it was just, it was kind of neat because like here you were, it gave you that feeling of like, you know, we succeeded because it ain't his no more, you know. 26:02.000 --> 26:08.000 It's just, he's like had to leave all this stuff behind. 26:08.000 --> 26:18.000 Churrios, the area surrounding the Comandancia, home to thousands of Panamanians, had been devastated. 26:18.000 --> 26:22.000 Bodies lay openly in the street. 26:22.000 --> 26:26.000 Many people were still missing. 26:26.000 --> 26:34.000 My husband walked all the way to St. Thomas Hospital, but they never told us anything. 26:34.000 --> 26:36.000 She just didn't appear. 26:36.000 --> 26:42.000 We couldn't find her, couldn't find her alive or dead. 26:42.000 --> 26:50.000 A total of 23 U.S. soldiers were killed during the invasion. 26:50.000 --> 26:54.000 312 were wounded. 26:54.000 --> 26:58.000 It was about noon the next day that I finally regained consciousness. 26:58.000 --> 27:02.000 And I woke up and the first thing that ran through my mind was that I had fallen asleep. 27:02.000 --> 27:13.000 And then I remembered back that I was in combat and, I mean, I'd remembered jumping in and all this stuff happening and I thought if I fell asleep, it was the wrong time to fall asleep. 27:13.000 --> 27:17.000 I'm going to be in deep trouble. 27:17.000 --> 27:22.000 Reinforcements arrived at Rio Ato and found Lou Olivera barely alive. 27:22.000 --> 27:26.000 He was medevaced to a hospital where he recuperated from his wounds. 27:26.000 --> 27:34.000 The bullet fired at his head had been deflected by a new Kevlar helmet and he sustained only a superficial wound. 27:34.000 --> 27:44.000 I'm just a very lucky individual, I truly believe. 27:44.000 --> 27:52.000 The day after the invasion, the first U.S. casualties were returned to Dover Air Force Base. 27:52.000 --> 27:56.000 Lieutenant J.G. John Patrick Connors. 27:56.000 --> 28:00.000 Petty Officer Isaac George Rodriguez III. 28:00.000 --> 28:05.000 Your president grieves deeply for you. 28:05.000 --> 28:08.000 Every human life is precious. 28:08.000 --> 28:16.000 And yet I have to answer, yes, it has been worth it. 28:16.000 --> 28:28.000 This operation is not over, but it's pretty well wrapped up. 28:28.000 --> 28:30.000 But it wasn't wrapped up. 28:30.000 --> 28:38.000 Sniper fire continued, primarily from Noriega's paramilitary forces known as the Dignity Battalion. 28:38.000 --> 28:54.000 In some cases, troops needed to go house to house to suppress the gunfire. 28:54.000 --> 29:00.000 Enemy resistance had been underestimated. 29:00.000 --> 29:04.000 With the defense forces destroyed, there were no police left in Panama. 29:04.000 --> 29:09.000 The stores throughout Panama City were destroyed by looters. 29:09.000 --> 29:14.000 It was a serious and unexpected problem. 29:14.000 --> 29:19.000 I never visualized that Panamanians would go to that level of looting. 29:19.000 --> 29:26.000 I just didn't realize that there was that level of potential there to do that. 29:26.000 --> 29:27.000 And I don't think anybody did. 29:27.000 --> 29:30.000 I think if we had known that it was going to go to that, 29:30.000 --> 29:35.000 we would have tried to bring in more troops earlier, to get into town earlier, 29:35.000 --> 29:40.000 into the city and try to preclude it. 29:40.000 --> 29:42.000 What do you think the people are going to do? 29:42.000 --> 29:43.000 You know, they're going to go out and riot. 29:43.000 --> 29:48.000 I mean, we have enough experience in our own country that when law and order breaks down 29:48.000 --> 29:51.000 in a period of rioting, there's all sorts of looting goes on. 29:51.000 --> 29:58.000 So why it should have surprised the American command, I'll never know. 29:58.000 --> 30:03.000 Four days after the invasion, Noriega was still nowhere to be found. 30:03.000 --> 30:09.000 But with his troops now totally defeated, he finally surfaced. 30:09.000 --> 30:13.000 He arranged to meet a priest who hid him under a blanket in the backseat of his car, 30:13.000 --> 30:17.000 and drove him here to seek asylum in the Vatican Embassy. 30:17.000 --> 30:19.000 It was Christmas Eve. 30:19.000 --> 30:23.000 I don't mean to croak on this, but it just turned out exactly what I knew Noriega was. 30:23.000 --> 30:24.000 He was just a coward. 30:24.000 --> 30:26.000 He was just trying to hide. 30:26.000 --> 30:36.000 He was playing a big bluff, and that's how it turned out to be. 30:36.000 --> 30:40.000 With Noriega now located, the U.S. soldiers could focus their full attention 30:40.000 --> 30:47.000 on reestablishing law and order. 30:47.000 --> 30:57.000 Noriega had armed much of the population to protect his regime. 30:57.000 --> 31:04.000 In an effort to disarm the country, the U.S. offered cash for guns. 31:04.000 --> 31:14.000 Tens of thousands were either turned in or confiscated in raids. 31:14.000 --> 31:17.000 And in one of the very first acts by the new government, 31:17.000 --> 31:20.000 a police force was quickly established. 31:20.000 --> 31:24.000 In a controversial move, members of the Panamanian Defense Forces 31:24.000 --> 31:32.000 were offered jobs as members of what would now be called the Public Force. 31:32.000 --> 31:36.000 They went out on joint patrols with U.S. troops. 31:36.000 --> 31:40.000 The men who had been loyal to the dictator Noriega just a week before 31:40.000 --> 31:52.000 were now expected to protect the new democracy. 31:52.000 --> 31:57.000 At the Vatican Embassy, the Army harassed Noriega by playing rock music. 31:57.000 --> 32:00.000 Outside, the crowds called for his arrest, 32:00.000 --> 32:07.000 while the isolated dictators slowly confronted the inevitable. 32:07.000 --> 32:12.000 Finally, on the night of January 3rd, 15 days after the invasion, 32:12.000 --> 32:16.000 Noriega walked out of the Vatican Embassy. 32:16.000 --> 32:23.000 He surrendered to American troops who flew him out of Panama City to an Air Force base. 32:23.000 --> 32:28.000 He was turned over to drug enforcement agents who put him on a plane for the United States. 32:28.000 --> 32:36.000 He will stand trial in June for conspiring to smuggle drugs. 32:36.000 --> 32:38.000 The same day Noriega surrendered, 32:38.000 --> 32:45.000 the Ramos family found their first clue about what had happened to their daughter. 32:45.000 --> 32:53.000 We found her 15 days later, 15 days after the invasion of Panama. 32:53.000 --> 32:57.000 At the government office, they had a picture of her dead labeled unknown. 32:57.000 --> 33:04.000 We didn't know where they had her. We didn't know where they had my daughter. 33:04.000 --> 33:07.000 Was it all worth it? 33:07.000 --> 33:15.000 I don't know how to answer that because I tell you, war is not a good thing. 33:15.000 --> 33:18.000 You know, humanity having the ability that God has given us, 33:18.000 --> 33:21.000 we should be able to solve things without conflict. 33:21.000 --> 33:26.000 And so there's one element that pulls of me saying, you know, war is never worth it. 33:26.000 --> 33:33.000 But on the other side, I feel that that could not have been solved in any other way. 33:33.000 --> 33:37.000 And I feel that it was necessary. 33:37.000 --> 33:42.000 One year ago, the people of Panama lived in fear under the thumb of a dictator. 33:42.000 --> 34:11.000 Today, democracy is restored. Panama is free. 34:11.000 --> 34:16.000 A year after the invasion, Panamanians celebrated another liberation, 34:16.000 --> 34:26.000 their independence from Spain more than 150 years ago. 34:26.000 --> 34:33.000 But Panamanians were still struggling to reconcile their contradictory feelings about the U.S. invasion. 34:33.000 --> 34:42.000 We did a very in-depth journalistic study of what really was being felt by the population. 34:42.000 --> 34:49.000 We definitely found a great majority of people considering it a liberation 34:49.000 --> 34:55.000 and celebrating the fact that we had gotten rid of Noriega and so forth. 34:55.000 --> 35:00.000 But the latest poll by Panama's largest newspaper also showed many Panamanians 35:00.000 --> 35:05.000 believe that they are no better off today than under Noriega. 35:05.000 --> 35:13.000 I began saying from the moment we returned that we should be very careful to 35:13.000 --> 35:18.000 and very alert to this wound in our national psyche, 35:18.000 --> 35:21.000 and that it would become more evident as time goes on. 35:21.000 --> 35:27.000 As time goes on, people forget the tragedies of the Noriega regime 35:27.000 --> 35:35.000 and are more conscious of the problems created by the invasion. 35:35.000 --> 35:46.000 One of the deepest wounds of the invasion is the controversy over how many innocent civilians were killed. 35:46.000 --> 35:54.000 Four months after the invasion, the debate was fueled when 123 bodies were exhumed from a mass grave in Panama City. 35:54.000 --> 36:00.000 It was here that the Ramos family finally found their daughter. 36:00.000 --> 36:09.000 God gave me the strength so that I could see my daughter for the last time. 36:09.000 --> 36:15.000 We were there. We identified her body there in a plastic bag. 36:15.000 --> 36:20.000 Just put into a plastic bag all those people thrown in there. 36:20.000 --> 36:28.000 You don't even bury dogs that way. 36:28.000 --> 36:33.000 Panamanian medical authorities say that unidentified bodies were buried 36:33.000 --> 36:36.000 because the morgues did not have the capacity to keep them. 36:36.000 --> 36:43.000 They put the total number of Panamanians killed at 321. 36:43.000 --> 36:52.000 But the mass graves raised questions, and some families have sued the United States. 36:52.000 --> 36:55.000 Jose Morin represents the Ramos family. 36:55.000 --> 37:00.000 Panama was devastated in the invasion. 37:00.000 --> 37:06.000 There are as many as perhaps 15 mass graves that exist throughout Panama 37:06.000 --> 37:13.000 that U.S. soldiers buried people, men, women, and children in these mass graves. 37:13.000 --> 37:18.000 And these mass graves still need to be uncovered, still need to be exhumed. 37:18.000 --> 37:25.000 And the result being that many thousands may have died as a result of this invasion. 37:25.000 --> 37:34.000 Richard Cabezas investigated the deaths for Panama's Medical Association. 37:34.000 --> 37:39.000 These people who say that there are five or 2,000 dead simply tell a great lie 37:39.000 --> 37:43.000 in order to make other people believe, but it is not true. 37:43.000 --> 37:47.000 They do not have 5,000 names. They do not have 2,000 names. 37:47.000 --> 37:51.000 Because there are not 2,000 relatives of these dead people. 37:51.000 --> 37:58.000 If they existed, they would have already come forward to the human rights groups which exist in Panama. 37:58.000 --> 38:05.000 Dr. Cabezas' investigation concluded that Elizabeth Ramos was killed by Noriega's Dignity Battalions. 38:05.000 --> 38:15.000 Nevertheless, the Ramos family wants compensation from the United States. 38:15.000 --> 38:20.000 I want President Bush to know of the great loss we've suffered here in Panama. 38:20.000 --> 38:29.000 We lost our loved ones that had nothing to do with the problem that Noriega presented. 38:29.000 --> 38:36.000 So far, none of the families who lost relatives has been compensated by the United States. 38:36.000 --> 38:43.000 Robert White, former U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador, recently returned from Panama. 38:43.000 --> 38:52.000 Assisting that there are only 200-plus civilian dead as a result of the invasion of an absurdly low figure, 38:52.000 --> 39:03.000 we have encouraged nationalists in Panama to use this uncertainty to inflate the number of people killed 39:03.000 --> 39:07.000 to weigh over 2,000, which is absurdly high. 39:07.000 --> 39:17.000 But this is going to be a running sore and an irritant in U.S.-Panamanian relations for years and years to come. 39:17.000 --> 39:24.000 And it's something we could put to rest by simple administrative competence and a few dollars spent. 39:24.000 --> 39:46.000 A year after the invasion, the people of Chorrillos were still demonstrating for compensation for their homes which were destroyed. 39:46.000 --> 39:48.000 Many of them still live here. 39:48.000 --> 39:58.000 Fifteen months after the invasion, over 1,000 refugees are camped out inside a hangar with nothing but makeshift tents to call home. 39:58.000 --> 40:06.000 The United States government has given aid for these victims, but they say it's not enough. 40:06.000 --> 40:12.000 El Chorrillo, which was the damaged area where the General Headquarters of General Noriega was, 40:12.000 --> 40:18.000 there's been an investment of approximately $36 to $38 million. 40:18.000 --> 40:21.000 There's new buildings been already put up. 40:21.000 --> 40:27.000 We have opened savings accounts for the people there that were hurt during the invasion for them to go and buy their own homes. 40:27.000 --> 40:30.000 So it's about $38 million in that portion. 40:33.000 --> 40:39.000 I've only been given $800, and that is nothing to compare with what I had in my home. 40:39.000 --> 40:45.000 What I had in my home was more than a refrigerator. A refrigerator alone is worth $800. 40:47.000 --> 40:54.000 The United States has promised a total aid package of $400 million for Panama's reconstruction. 40:54.000 --> 40:58.000 Ambler Moss is a former U.S. Ambassador to Panama. 40:58.000 --> 41:06.000 As I calculated today, only really about $100 million or a little bit more in real money has been transferred to Panama. 41:06.000 --> 41:08.000 And I think that's a mistake. 41:08.000 --> 41:18.000 When you consider that the U.S. economic sanctions against Noriega for two years brought the Panamanian economy down by probably about 25 percent, 41:18.000 --> 41:22.000 and then there were the direct costs of the invasion, the people left homeless, all the damage, 41:22.000 --> 41:29.000 that I think it's sort of a fundamental element of tort law that you should, to put it in plain language, clean up the mess that you make. 41:32.000 --> 41:35.000 And frankly, even though $100 million is serious money, 41:35.000 --> 41:39.000 it's not serious money compared with the terrible amount of need in Panama. 41:39.000 --> 41:47.000 Public health problems, housing shortages, infrastructure problems, things that a private sector cannot possibly be expected to produce. 41:55.000 --> 41:57.000 Panama is a country divided. 41:57.000 --> 42:06.000 The rich, primarily lawyers, bankers, and high government officials, make up a small minority of the 2.3 million Panamanians. 42:19.000 --> 42:24.000 It is the lower middle class and the poor who make up two-thirds of the country. 42:24.000 --> 42:29.000 And public opinion polls indicate that they feel left out economically. 42:29.000 --> 42:33.000 Unemployment is higher than under Noriega. 42:38.000 --> 42:47.000 What I captured from my conversations with the government is that they're quite willing to accept an unemployment rate of 25 percent. 42:47.000 --> 42:52.000 This is a real Reaganomics trickle-down kind of economic philosophy. 42:52.000 --> 42:59.000 And I don't see that there are any economic policies designed to change that situation. 43:02.000 --> 43:05.000 Panama today is still heavily armed. 43:05.000 --> 43:08.000 A paranoia exists about security. 43:08.000 --> 43:11.000 There are weapons everywhere. 43:11.000 --> 43:19.000 We probably have the most fully armed civilian population of any country in the hemisphere. 43:19.000 --> 43:29.000 And it's a direct result of the looting post-invasion, where people actually had to go out and protect their own homes, 43:29.000 --> 43:34.000 added to the total lack of confidence in the police institutions. 43:34.000 --> 43:49.000 The public lacks confidence in the 11,000-member police force, because 98 percent of them are former members of the Panamanian Defense Forces. 43:49.000 --> 43:54.000 Obviously, this is something that the country does not want. 43:54.000 --> 44:07.000 Every survey and every public opinion poll we have made, 70-plus percent of the population resents this, has no confidence in the public force. 44:07.000 --> 44:11.000 As a consequence, the public force is not effective. 44:11.000 --> 44:17.000 Vice President Ricardo Arias Calderón was responsible for the police force. 44:17.000 --> 44:28.000 We've screened out, between the ranks of captain to general, almost 60 percent of all officers, 44:28.000 --> 44:34.000 and have left none of the ranks of general, colonel, or lieutenant colonel. 44:34.000 --> 44:37.000 Get him out of the way! Get him out of the way! 44:37.000 --> 44:46.000 But just last December, this former colonel in the Defense Forces and ex-chief of police, Herrera Hassan, attempted a coup, 44:46.000 --> 44:54.000 confirming Panamanians' worst fears, the police force did nothing to stop it, and American troops had to put down the coup. 44:54.000 --> 44:59.000 I need some cover over here! 44:59.000 --> 45:07.000 As a result, U.S. troops still patrol the streets of Panama today. 45:07.000 --> 45:13.000 U.S. officials also remain concerned about the level of drug traffic through Panama. 45:13.000 --> 45:24.000 According to a recent State Department report, drugs continue to be a problem despite increased efforts by Panamanian customs. 45:24.000 --> 45:32.000 That's a good enough coke, probably about 80 percent. 45:32.000 --> 45:37.000 Cocaine from neighboring Colombia is still smuggled in every conceivable fashion, 45:37.000 --> 45:42.000 packaged in freight shipments, strapped on bodies, even swallowed. 45:42.000 --> 45:51.000 We had one passenger, a 60-year-old Colombian, coming from Bogota, going into Miami, 45:51.000 --> 45:59.000 and we picked him out and we started investigating, and finally he did mention he had swallowed 140. 45:59.000 --> 46:06.000 When Rodrigo Erosimena was appointed to run Panamanian customs, he fired more than 200 people. 46:06.000 --> 46:17.000 Almost 25 percent of his workforce was corrupt, but he says corruption still flourishes in other departments. 46:17.000 --> 46:25.000 For example, customs turns its confiscated drugs over to the technical police to be destroyed, 46:25.000 --> 46:33.000 but these are the same people who work for Noriega, and Erosimena believes that the drugs are stolen instead of being burned. 46:33.000 --> 46:44.000 There is a big show, flames and all, but unfortunately, once it is burned, no one can really prove that what was burned was really drugs. 46:44.000 --> 46:58.000 And there will always be doubt in my mind because the customs lab technician is not invited to verify the substance before it is burned. 46:58.000 --> 47:05.000 Today, with Noriega gone, free enterprise flourishes in the drug industry. 47:05.000 --> 47:14.000 So you have, instead of one chief entrepreneur, you've got 60 or 70 or 80 competing entrepreneurs. 47:14.000 --> 47:21.000 The information that I have is that, indeed, the Panamanian ambassador to the United States corroborated 47:21.000 --> 47:28.000 that there is more drug trafficking and more money laundering now than under Noriega. 47:28.000 --> 47:35.000 The director of customs also says that many people arrested by his agents for smuggling drugs are simply let go. 47:35.000 --> 47:42.000 According to the U.S. State Department, the Panamanian court system is in serious disarray. 47:42.000 --> 47:49.000 Rogelio Cruz is the attorney general of Panama. 47:49.000 --> 47:54.000 The problem is that only a few years ago, Panamanians have started to become interested in justice, 47:54.000 --> 47:58.000 and that is why they now speak of justice being slow with the new democratic government. 47:58.000 --> 48:02.000 But really, it's not just now. It's always been slow. 48:02.000 --> 48:10.000 This government has now been in power 15 months, and it is truly shocking that in all that time, 48:10.000 --> 48:20.000 not one drug trafficker, not one of those people who stole hundreds of millions of dollars, 48:20.000 --> 48:25.000 has been brought to trial. Not one. 48:25.000 --> 48:33.000 During Noriega's reign, one of the great attractions about Panama for drug dealers was the country's secretive banking system. 48:33.000 --> 48:38.000 The regulation of those banks has changed little since the invasion. 48:38.000 --> 48:46.000 A substantial portion of the income of Panama comes from the banking industry. 48:46.000 --> 48:59.000 The only reason that banking industry exists is to serve as a haven for tax flight, drug money, etc. 48:59.000 --> 49:05.000 The banks have increased their own deposits by $2.5 billion in 10 months. 49:05.000 --> 49:11.000 As far as I can tell, and I'm the president of the banking commission, it's clean, honest, decent money. 49:11.000 --> 49:17.000 But according to the U.S. government, $67 million of drug money was laundered through banks in Panama 49:17.000 --> 49:20.000 in the year following the invasion. 49:20.000 --> 49:25.000 Several banks are now under investigation, including Interbanco, 49:25.000 --> 49:31.000 where President Andarov of Panama served on the board as secretary general. 49:31.000 --> 49:35.000 When Dagoberto Franco, a reporter from the newspaper El Siglo, 49:35.000 --> 49:39.000 wrote a column connecting Andarra to money laundering, 49:39.000 --> 49:46.000 the president used an old Noriega law to sue him for libel, and then had the reporter thrown in jail. 49:46.000 --> 49:57.000 This was for the Noriega regime a means of instilling terror, intimidation, repression. 49:57.000 --> 50:01.000 And now it has been maintained by this government, 50:01.000 --> 50:11.000 and proportionately it has been used more times under this government than during the Noriega regime. 50:11.000 --> 50:21.000 Panamanian journalists confronted Andarra and demanded that the libel law be repealed. 50:21.000 --> 50:36.000 Andarra ignored their petition and instead read the law aloud from the Constitution. 50:36.000 --> 50:43.000 What's sad in this country is that they tell us that they're building a democracy, and yet they're jading journalists. 50:43.000 --> 50:53.000 A government who feels threatened by journalists is a government who is against any type of freedom of expression. 50:53.000 --> 50:59.000 President Andarra has resigned from Interbanco and the government has taken control of the bank, 50:59.000 --> 51:06.000 but questions still linger about Andarra's part ownership and just how much the president really knew. 51:06.000 --> 51:12.000 Andarra's behavior has damaged his credibility and the stability of his government. 51:12.000 --> 51:19.000 Just yesterday he abruptly stripped part of his coalition, the Christian Democrats, of all power. 51:19.000 --> 51:29.000 Instead of coming together, this government has disintegrated and has less and less support. 51:29.000 --> 51:44.000 One of the most startling things that we encountered was the number of people who still support or have nostalgia for the party of Torrijos and Noriega. 51:44.000 --> 51:57.000 And this, of course, is borne out by the recent elections where Noriega's party won a majority of the seats that were contested. 51:57.000 --> 52:02.000 We must accept that they are amateurs at governance. 52:02.000 --> 52:10.000 I mean, after you go 21 years of dictatorship, it's very hard to find anybody clean that has any experience in governance. 52:10.000 --> 52:19.000 But we are starting to get impatient with their lack of efficiency. 52:19.000 --> 52:29.000 We all complain about his lack of forcefulness and strength, yet if you scratch below the surface, what we really want is a weak president. 52:29.000 --> 52:37.000 We're sick and tired after 21 years of strongmen, and that is Andarra's greatest advantage. 52:37.000 --> 52:44.000 He doesn't constitute a threat, and that we like. 52:44.000 --> 52:55.000 But for some observers, the real problem with Panama's fragile democracy lies not in the personal inadequacies of its leaders, but in the long shadow of American influence. 52:55.000 --> 53:00.000 And this is, by the way, this contradiction about the present government. 53:00.000 --> 53:03.000 They don't want an independent Panama. 53:03.000 --> 53:12.000 They basically want a Panama that's subservient to the United States because that's how they have always prospered. 53:12.000 --> 53:32.000 Whereas large numbers of the people of Panama really do have an authentic national spirit and think that what they have now is much more a facade of democracy rather than the real thing. 53:32.000 --> 53:42.000 Mr. Speaker, the President of the United States! 53:42.000 --> 53:56.000 By most accounts, the invasion of Panama gave President Bush and his advisors a new confidence that the United States could successfully use military force to achieve its foreign policy objectives. 53:56.000 --> 54:05.000 And a year after the invasion of Panama, the United States went to war again to counter the outrageous acts of another dictator. 54:05.000 --> 54:18.000 And as president, I can report to the nation, aggression is defeated, the war is over. 54:18.000 --> 54:31.000 When was the last time you supposed that President Bush or Secretary of State Baker thought about Panama? I think it's history to them. 54:31.000 --> 54:42.000 The Panamanians think about the U.S. invasion and its aftermath every day. It's a living reality for them. 54:42.000 --> 54:49.000 Fifteen-month-old Elizabeth was born the night the United States invaded Panama. 54:49.000 --> 55:02.000 She was named for her aunt, Elizabeth Ramos. 55:02.000 --> 55:13.000 They want to say the 20th of December was a liberation, a just cause. But for who a just cause? What about the loved ones we lost that day? 55:13.000 --> 55:26.000 Yes, we suffered through it. People were killed. But we're now living in daylight and we were living in a very dark night. 55:26.000 --> 55:37.000 So I prefer to look at the future and say it has opened up a future for us. May God help us make it worthwhile. 55:37.000 --> 56:00.000 In yesterday's power struggle, Arias Calderon was forced to relinquish all his major responsibilities as vice president of Panama. 56:07.000 --> 56:17.000 The Panamanians think about the U.S. invasion and its aftermath every day. 56:17.000 --> 56:46.000 Funding for Frontline is provided by the financial support of viewers like you. 56:46.000 --> 56:52.000 And by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. 56:52.000 --> 57:04.000 Frontline is produced for the Documentary Consortium by WGBH Boston, which is solely responsible for its content. 57:04.000 --> 57:18.000 For videocassette information about this program, please write to this address. 57:18.000 --> 57:21.000 This is PBS. 57:21.000 --> 57:23.000 I accept your nomination. 57:23.000 --> 57:30.000 Did the 1980 Reagan campaign promise arms to Iran in exchange for a delay in the release of the hostages? 57:30.000 --> 57:35.000 A lot of people suspected that some kind of a deal had been done. 57:35.000 --> 57:43.000 The election held hostage. Next time on Frontline. 57:43.000 --> 58:11.000 For a printed transcript of this or any Frontline program, please write to this address.